Tuesday, December 31, 2019

Forensic Anthropology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1068 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/09/20 Category History Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Scientific Essay Did you like this example? Forensic Anthropology Theme: A forensic anthropologist examines the skeletal remains which makes significant contributions to an investigation. Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology to the legal process. The identification of skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise unidentified human remains is important for both legal and humanitarian reasons. Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in physical anthropology to identify human remains, and to assist in the detection of crime. The science of forensic anthropology includes archaeological excavation; examination of hair, insects, plant materials and footprints; determination of elapsed time since death; facial reproduction; photographic superimposition; detection of anatomical variants; and analysis of past injury and medical treatment. Forensic anthropologists work to suggest the age, sex, ancestry, stature, and unique features of a decedent from the skeleton. For example, when a skeleton found in a wooded area is brought to a morgue or an anthropologists laboratory for examination, the first step is to determine whether the remains are human, animal, or inorganic material. If human, an anthropologist then attempts to estimate age at death, racial affiliation, sex, and stature of the decedent. Although the primary task of anthropologists is to establish the identity of a decedent, increasingly they provide expert opinion on the type and size of weapons used and the number of blows sustained by victims of violent crime. It should be noted, however, that forensic pathologists or related experts in forensic medicine determine the cause or manner of death, not the forensic anthropologist. Most anthropologists have advanced degrees in anthropology and have examined hundreds of remains. They are also thoroughly familiar with human anatomy and how it varies in different populations. Some anthropologists may also have experience i n police science or medicine, as well as in serology, toxicology, firearms and tool marks identification, crime scene investigation, handling of evidence, and photography. A limited number of anthropologists deal with footprint analysis and species identification of carrion insects in relation to estimating time elapsed since death. A forensic anthropologist makes significant contributions to an investigation. The greatest of these could well be the anthropologists intensive training and experience in distinguishing between human and nonhuman remains, determining age at death, racial affiliation, sex, stature, elapsed time since death, skeletal trauma, post-mortem damage and alteration of the skeleton, and establishing positive identification based on skeletal and dental evidence. Such information can be obtained from complete bodies or those partially destroyed by burning, air crashes, intentional mutilation and dismemberment, explosions, or other mass disasters. In fact, a f orensic anthropologist is now an integral member of most mass disaster teams. Through their anthropological training, most forensic anthropologists have knowledge of excavation techniques and mapping that are invaluable in recovering evidence. Consequently, the forensic anthropologist should participate in the investigation of the crime scene and, especially, in the recovery of human skeletal remains. The question of racial affiliation is difficult to answer because, although racial classification has some biological components, it is based primarily on social affiliation. Nevertheless, some anatomical details, especially in the face, often suggest the individuals race. In particular, white individuals have narrower faces with high noses and prominent chins. Black individuals have wider nasal openings and sub nasal grooves. American Indians and Asians have forward-projecting cheekbones and specialized dental features. Examination of this skeleton reveals traits consistent with white racial affiliation. Further examination of the skull produces a few strands of straight blonde hair. Microscopic examination shows the hair to be consistent with that of a white person. Usually, examination of the pubic bone, sacroiliac joint, amount of dental wear, cranium, arthritic changes in the spine, and microscopic studies of bones and teeth narrows the age estimate given by the anthropologist. After examining the skeleton, these indicators suggest that the man was between 35 and 45 years of age at the time of death. Estimation of stature can be narrowed by measuring one or more complete long bones, preferably a femur or tibia. If stature estimates are based on incomplete long bones, less confidence can be placed in them. This measurement of the maximum length of the bone can then be plugged into a formula based on race and sex to produce an estimate. In this case the individuals stature was estimated at 57 to 59 with a mean stature of 58. Estimating the time inter val since death can be extremely difficult. For the most part, such an estimate is based on the amount and condition of soft tissue, such as muscle, skin, and ligaments present, the preservation of the bones, extent of associated plant root growth, odor, and any carnivore and insect activity. However, many other variables must also be considered, including the temperature at the time of death, penetrating wounds, humidity/aridity, soil acidity, and water retention. The longer the time since death, the more difficult it is to determine the time interval since death. In this hypothetical example, the anthropologist determined that the individual died 6 to 9 months previously, based largely on the condition of the soft tissue and the amount of root growth in the individuals clothing. After the dirt and forest debris were removed from the bones using water and a soft brush, a number of faint cuts became visible in the left ribs and the mid-back. The number of discrete cuts in thre e ribs and in one vertebra suggest that this male was stabbed a minimum of three times. No additional evidence of trauma was noted. Further examination revealed that the male sustained a fracture above his right eye and upper jaw bone at least several years before death. The individual also had a severely deviated nasal septum and presented evidence of a severe chronic nasal infection. This observation is noteworthy because if he sought medical help for the fractures or sinus condition, photo images may have been taken that would provide an excellent opportunity for positive identification. Forensic anthropologists have much to contribute to law enforcement and would welcome the opportunity to assist in the successful resolution of an investigation. They work to suggest the age, sex, ancestry, stature, and unique features of a decedent from the skeleton. They are now an integral member of most mass disaster teams. Through their anthropological training, most forensic anthropol ogists have knowledge of excavation techniques and mapping that are invaluable in recovering evidence. Consequently, they should participate in the investigation of the crime scene and, especially, in the recovery of human skeletal remains. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Forensic Anthropology" essay for you Create order

Monday, December 23, 2019

New Wave Of Illegal Immigration Essay - 1304 Words

The facts aren’t known because the media won’t report on them,† Donald Trump declared during his immigration speech in Phoenix on Wednesday. A few hours earlier, the Republican nominee had been in Mexico City, where he had held a joint press conference with the Mexican President, Enrique Peà ±a Nieto, and lauded Mexican-Americans as â€Å"amazing people . . . just beyond reproach.† In Phoenix, flanked by American flags, he struck a different tone. Trump warned the crowd that if Clinton were elected, America would be inundated by a new wave of illegal immigration that would result in â€Å"thousands of more violent, horrible crimes, and total chaos and lawlessness.† Again and again in his Presidential campaign, Trump has issued sweeping assertions about how immigrants are â€Å"bringing crime† to America. Wednesday offered only the latest, and loudest, example. Examining these claims is instructive, not for what they tell us about Trump but for what they reveal about immigrants, whose relationship to crime is greatly misunderstood. If you live in a city that has become less dangerous in recent decades, a growing body of evidence suggests that you actually have immigrants to thank. When Trump kicked off his campaign, last year, he accused Mexico of sending â€Å"rapists† and criminals to America. This was a patently outrageous claim, and there was no evidence behind it. According to Robert Sampson, a sociologist at Harvard and the former scientific director of the Project on Human Development inShow MoreRelatedIllegal Immigration And The United States1664 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to a new Pew Research Center estimate, there were 11.3 million unauthorized immigrants living in the U.S. in March 2013 (Pew Research Center, 2014), and there might be even more since many of them decide not to share any personal information to these types of organizations, such as the Census. The main reason for this presumption is that they fear of being deported back to their birth countries. Many other studies have shown that the number of unauthorized immigrants or â€Å"aliens† (as manyRead MoreImmigration Policies During Mexican Immigration Across The Border From The Mid 20th Century Into The 21st Century1627 Words   |  7 Pages To what extent have United States immigration policies contributed to the fluctuating trends in Mexican immigration across the border from the mid-20th century into the 21st century? Alejandra Estrada Professor Sarah Lischer POL 251 To what extent have United States immigration policies contributed to the fluctuating trends in Mexican immigration across the border from the mid-20th century into the 21st century? This report is centralized around two main arguments. The first argumentRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article Mexico 915 Words   |  4 Pagesfour waves of immigration. The following article describes about presidential candidate Donald Trump’s proposal for building a wall along US – Mexico border. During the first great wave of immigration which was in 1910, Mexicans crossed US borders in small numbers which was around 1.5 million people. Civil wars in Mexico caused people to migrate. Most of them entered through Texas towns and cities. Some people who wanted to formalize their status paid some amount of money at the immigration stationRead MoreUndocumented Immigrants And Illegal Immigration1016 Words   |  5 Pages Immigration When it comes to talking about undocumented immigrants, it can become a touchy subject. Everyone has their own beliefs when conversing about this matter. â€Å"The Center’s preliminary estimate of the unauthorized immigrant population in 2016 is 11.3 million† ( Pew Research Center). And with that, note that number increases every year. The list of liabilities when it comes to entering the United States illegally is outrageous. With this fact, it encourages illegal activityRead MoreThe Immigration Of The United States1632 Words   |  7 Pagesquestion, many people face different challenges in life, and this just might have been what pushed the French and European to settle in the New World. Since the colonial era, America has seen a wave of immigrants migrate in search of freedom and equality. Is this the same immigration today? Nearly 11.6 million immigrants from Mexico reside in the U.S. Today Immigration has a significant impact on many aspects of life in the United States, from the workforce and the classroom to communities across the countryRead MoreThe Immigration Of The United States1628 Words   |  7 PagesHistory of Immigration Most people think to themselves â€Å"why immigrate?† Although there are multiple answers to this question, many people face different challenges in life, and this just might have been what pushed the French and European to settle in the New World. Since the colonial era, America has seen a wave of immigrants migrate in search of freedom and equality. Is this the same immigration today? Nearly 11.6 million immigrants from Mexico reside in the U.S. Today Immigration has a significantRead MoreIllegal Immigration Speech Essay765 Words   |  4 Pages I’m against the millions of illegal immigrants that come to the U.S. and cause trouble and make things harder for the legal immigrants that are already here. Illegal immigrants have long been a problem in the United States, and there have always been so many controversies about illegal immigration Today, I would like to inform you about the serious problems illegal immigration could cause. First, by giving you all the facts, and by explaining how illegal immigration, if continued, will affect ourRead MoreMexican Immigration And The United States1676 Words   |  7 PagesMexican immigration to the United States began in the 1900’s, characterized as a series of waves that reflected the labor demands in the U.S and political and economic unrest in Mexico. (Citation pending) AND IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THE POINT OF THIS PAPER IT IS IMPORTANT TO FIRST GET FAMILIAR WITH LABOR, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF MEXICANS IN THE U.S. The first occurring prior to World War II, where the immigrated population rose from 221,915 in 1910 to 641,462 in 1930, according to the 1933Read MoreThe Media And The Issue Of Illegal Immigration777 Words   |  4 Pages Paper #1: Discuss how the different media outlets frame the issue of illegal immigration? It is commonly known that media coverage of anything controversial can be faulty, and biased. ABC News and CCN News could cover the same story, in different ways. This is amplified in cases that affect different audiences (as in age, race, financial class), because certain stations are aimed towards a certain audience. A great example of this is FOX and FOX Latino. The two stations, though sister stationsRead MoreWhy Immigration Is Responsible For Crime Essay1586 Words   |  7 PagesIn what ways could immigration lead to higher levels of crime? Explain whether, or under what circumstances, it does. People migrate for various reason, such as working, studying and asylum seeking. In 2014, OECD data display the inflow of foreign population to the UK is 504,000; US has 1,016518; Canada has 260,411. It is a double-edged sword – productive immigrants contribute to the economic growth of the country and do not threaten the welfare of the natives. On the contrary, if the immigrants

Sunday, December 15, 2019

The Effects of Technology on Modern Life Free Essays

Television has truly changed the lives of most people in Britain. Nearly all British households have at least one colour television. The amount of time people spend each day watching TV is increasingly significantly every year. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects of Technology on Modern Life or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the first three months of 2010 British viewers watched a record of more than four hours of TV a day on average. Some children have become addicted to watching TV and watch it all day when not in school. Referring to Passage B, children will have watched about 25,000 hours of TV by the age of 18. I believe parents need to be stricter with their children and get them involved with sports and clubs to prevent them from watching too much TV or playing games indoors. A lot of the programs on TV today including Big Brother, The only way is Essex, etc, are reality programmes that are meaningless to our everyday lives. People will do anything to get on TV nowadays! Technology is getting more advanced each day and has taken over our lives. From small fuzzy TV’s with few channels to plasma screen TV’s with hundreds, from writing letters to instantly texting someone on a touch screen phone. These are all amazing advances in technology and have changed people’s lives. Although as it says in Passage B, TV violence contributes to real violence and it influences people into bad language, sex and pain. The Internet has also changed many people lives. In Passage A, it mentions a new technology called VOIP – Voice Over Internet Protocol, so now people can phone there friends, wherever they are, for as long as you want, for absolutely free. I think this is good and bad because all though it is fast and doesn’t cost, people may then spend to much time on their phone, knowing there are no restrictions. There are also many social network sites where you can chat to friends instantly and share personal information. People as young as 10 have an account on these social network sites, which can be highly dangerous. There are pedophiles on these sites that can easily manipulate young kids. The sites try to stop these things from happening but with so many people online, it’s almost impossible to stop them all. Facebook is one of the biggest online social networking sites with over 850million users and over 3000 employees. It is one of the fastest ways to communicate with friends and share personal information. Facebook is the fastest growing social networking site and was created in 2004. You must be 13 or older to have an account on Facebook but there 7.5 million children under 13 with accounts and 5 million under 10, violating the site’s terms of service. Technology is a massive thing in our everyday lives and we use it for almost everything. People can accomplished so many things using technology and it helped companies become more known, millions of people can watch the same thing at once, but its not just TV and Internet. With new technology we can fly jumbo jets around the world, visiting 100’s of different countries each day. Technology has changed massively within the last 20 years, which is very good, but could also be very bad. We need to control how we use technology, especially watching TV and the internet, because it is wasting our lives when they are many things to do and things t accomplish. This is what we have come to. How to cite The Effects of Technology on Modern Life, Essays

Friday, December 6, 2019

School Based Suicide Prevention Programmes -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The School Based Suicide Prevention Programmes? Answer: Introducation Incidents of teenage suicide among Singapore citizens have grabbed significant attention in recent times, entailing the urgent implementation of preventive strategies. The social factors that contribute to increased suicidal tendencies among teenagers in the country are to be addressed adequately if a positive change is to be brought about at the earliest. The present essay discusses how a national wide campaign could be implemented for the promotion of awareness of suicide risk factors among teenagers in Singapore. The paper would also address factors in society that contribute to the increased risk of suicide among the selected population in the country. The suicide rate is an important marker of the health of a nation. It is a notable cause of mortality in youth and adolescents, and it has been noted that suicide has peak prevalence in adolescence in a number of countries. Suicide among teenagers poses a great burden to individuals, their families and society (Chen et al., 2011). The teenage suicide rate in Singapore has drawn the attention of the concerned authorities who are still struggling to find effective and apt strategies that can prevent the nursing prevalence of this issue among the population. Suicides among teenagers have become a significant element of the national healthcare agenda that points out the failure of healthcare bodies to address the concern adequately. The year 2015 saw Singapore make a record of the most number of teen suicides in one and half decade. 27 teenagers had committed suicide in the year 2015, aged between 10 and 19 years. This number was significantly high from 13 teenagers committing suicide in 2014 (Tianjie, 2016). Chia and Chia (2012) pointed out that young adults in Singapore who reach out to suicide prevention agencies cite academic pressure, mental health concerns and social relationships as the maximum source of stress. Individuals who are secretive, and suffer from issues of self-esteem and problem solving skills are at higher risk of attempting suicide. In addition to commonly known causes of stress suffered such as academic and social issues, other emerging factors also contribute to high suicide rates, including cyber bullying. Individuals suffering from mental illness are more likely to commit suicide. Having a negative influence on people both physically and psychologically, the mental health conditions are known to directly contribute to suicidal behaviour. For the past few years, the official bodies governing public health are encouraging people to fight against suicidal tendencies, but suicide prevention has been felt to be more than the creation of awareness. What is needed at th e resent hour is the right conversations about suicide. The lack of sensitivity among the public till now reflects the crucial need for the teenagers to have a better understanding of the risk factors for suicide and the turmoil it brings along. There is a pervasiveness of misconceptions regarding suicide among the society, and thus it is vital to creating a supportive environment for those who are at risk (Chia Chia, 2012). The government of Singapore in collaboration with the different noted public healthcare organisations must come forward to develop, produce and disseminate targeted, safe and effective suicide prevention awareness campaign. The key to raise awareness about the risk factors of suicide among teenagers lies in the suitable combination of national multimedia public service announcements and dissemination of suicide prevention awareness materials (Loh et al., 2012). The national campaign is to be based on five fundamental elements, drawing in from a pool of evidence available on the success of previous similar campaigns of other countries. The campaign is to be implemented following a series of five steps- evaluation of relevant data; review of risk factors of suicide; emphasis on powerful and hopeful messaging; utilisation of effective resources; and empowerment of participants with tools to communicate (Kahn Lester, 2013). The first step of the national campaign would be segmenting the audience and evaluation of suicide risk factors specific for Singapore. Segmenting the audience around age, shared values and cultural backgrounds would be crucial in the development of the campaign. Suicidal attempts, planning and thoughts have been found to be significantly higher among teenagers above the age of 15 years in Singapore. The age group of 15-28 years would be the primary target audience for this campaign. Both the genders would be given equal weight in the campaign as there are negligible differences among male and female when it comes to the suicide rate. It would be equally significant to put the focus on the nuances within the target audience (Kahn Lester, 2013). The second stage would be to review suicide awarningsigns.Extensive research is to be undertaken to highlight the signs of suicidal thoughts that are to be addressed in the first place. Knowing the differences between self-harm, suicidal behaviour and high-risk improve the outreach efforts. In the Singapore context, it has been found that mental disorders, substance abuse and life events equally contribute to suicidal tendencies. The third and successive step would be to emphasise powerful and hopeful messaging. The campaign facilitator has the key responsibility of developing a strong message that can attract the attention of the target audience and compel them to think in the direction as desired. While developing the message, it is necessary to emphasise on the hope of recovery through the messaging. The power of personal and long-standing relationships are to be highlighted in due course. One must avoid reporting that suicide has a key link with any single event. Further, suicide is not to be framed as an inexplicable or is not supposed to be normalised (Kahn Lester, 2013). The fourth and most significant step would be to utilise effective and valuable resources. Sufficient workforce who are skilled and competent would be needed for this purpose who are to exhibit collaboration and leadership (Kahn Lester, 2013). Further, sustained funding is to be made possible by government funding. In addition to finance, human resources would be a significant tangible factor for the ultimate outcome of the campaign. Most important would be however the promotional materials selected. The public service announcements would be done on radios, television, print ads, digital banner advertisements and billboards. Suicide risk factor and impact awareness materials specific for the target group are to be made in the form of posters, brochures and classroom curriculum. Billboard graphics are a good medium for reaching to the audience around the year. Brochures and posters are effective in reaching out to the audience in schools, clinics, and other community settings. Educat ional and interactive programs can be designed for schools. Print advertisement graphics are to be used for distribution to magazines, specifically teen magazines, newspapers and other print publications (Wasserman et al., 2015). Research indicates that specific materials are more effective and have been more successful in the past in other countries in reaching the target audience. Empowering the participants to understand the risk factors for suicide is essential and the last step. The overarching goal of all campaigns rests in the implementation of the plan outlined. With the audience in mind, a slogan is to e created, and outreach materials are to be made. The participants are to be empowered for speaking up and coming forward with their concerns. Further, they are to be taught to respond to the materials appropriately. Participants are also to be equipped with tools for support and help (McKenzie et al., 2016). In conclusion, by exploring the popular trend among Singapore culture to focus on multimedia public service announcements together with the exploitation of the potential of awareness materials, attention can be brought to the issue of high risk of suicide in the country. It is expected that with adequate funding from the government and employment of skilled workforce, the national campaign would be effective in spreading awareness of suicide risk factors among teenagers in Singapore. References Chen, Y. Y., Chien-Chang Wu, K., Yousuf, S., Yip, P. S. (2011). Suicide in Asia: opportunities and challenges.economics reviews,34(1), 129-144. Chia, B. H., Chia, A. (2012). Prevention of suicide in Singapore.Annals of the Academy of Medicine-Singapore,41(9), 375. Kahn, D. L., Lester, D. (2013). Efforts to decriminalize suicide in Ghana, India and Singapore.Suicidology Online,4, 96-104. Loh, C., Tai, B. C., Ng, W. Y., Chia, A., Chia, B. H. (2012). Suicide in young Singaporeans aged 1024 years between 2000 to 2004.Archives of suicide research,16(2), 174-182. McKenzie, J. F., Neiger, B. L., Thackeray, R. (2016).Planning, implementing evaluating health promotion programs: A primer. Pearson. Tianjie, W. (2016). Teen suicides highest in 15 years but overall rate falls: SOS.The Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/teen-suicides-highest-in-15-years-but-overall-rate-falls Wasserman, D., Hoven, C. W., Wasserman, C., Wall, M., management, R., Hadlaczky, G., ... Bobes, J. (2015). School-based suicide prevention programmes: the SEYLE cluster-randomised, controlled trial.The Lancet,385(9977), 1536-1544.

Friday, November 29, 2019

Virgin Group Marketing Performance

Introduction This paper presents a research project about Virgin Group. Richard Branson laid the foundation for the organization. It expanded from a small business venture publishing magazines to the present diversified international investment. The path to success involved intense research and formulation of strategic plans. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Virgin Group Marketing Performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Under organizational plan, the research project will enumerate on how research and development brought about existence of Virgin Group. Its system of management is decentralized which then empowers individuals to share ideas, values and experiences for the common good. The essay will further discuss marketing strategy of 4Ps as utilized in Virgin Group. Background of Virgin Group Development of the business started with Richard Branson when he was a student at a boarding school. Bran son was motivated by the success of his magazine which was published in 1968. He therefore quit school to conduct magazine business. Branson later undertook advertisement of mail order records on student magazine. Entry into joint ventures accelerated the rate of expansion and differentiation. The business name ‘Virgin’ was suggested by Branson’s business associate who thought that the business possessed some commercial purity, originality and high value. In 1985, Richard Branson looked into the possibility of expanding the capital base of the business by way of an initial public offer. Subsequently, 35 % of the company’s equity was listed on the London stock market. From 1990 – 2001 Virgin groups expanded intensely after Branson entered into joint ventures with other business including one of the leading Japanese retailers, Marui. There were opportunities which favored the new ventures. One of them was ‘privatization and deregulation in Brit ain’, Ansoff, (113). This is apparent in its successful bids for west Coast rail and Cross country services which resulted in Virgin rail. Deregulation is obvious in acquisition of Euro Belgian Airlines that was re-launched as Virgin Express. ‘Virgin group also expanded due to the possibility of selling goods and services directly to the consumers’ Branson (11). Richard took up this opportunity to searching for innovative business contract with its customers. On a higher scale, Virgin Group saw tremendous change from the explosion of information communication technology and media such that a joint venture between telephone operator NTl and virgin was sealed (Branson, 16). By the year 2004, virgin group of companies had expanded to over 200 ventures with its core on travel business, mobile, monetary, vend music and internet.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF L earn More Organization of virgin group The investment has continually registered success derived from the concept of team spirit. Virgin aims at bringing about difference in their area of operation starting from transport to retail business. It utilizes forward planning criteria which have assisted management in setting objectives for the diversified business investment. Decision makers in Virgin Group integrate both risks and research and development in their planning process. Most of the business venture entered into by Virgin involved extensive research and in-depth analysis. The way to success for Richard captured an aspect of risk-taking with a sole intent to win innovations in the market place (Allen, 21). This also went a long way in pleasing the target customer through product improvement and differentiation. The company does not distinguish bureaucracy in its management hence flow of information is free and originates from a diversified spring. This decentralized system of management allows sharing of ambitions, concerns and even expertise. Solving a problem is fast and easy if teamwork is built in employees. Performance of virgin group Virgin Group has expanded to more than 200 companies in thirty countries. Its revenues exceeded  £11 billion with an approximately number of employees being 50,000 people in 29 countries. Richard Branson who controls the company announced that profits were an approxiamately GBP 68.4 pound which is an increment from the previous year’s earnings. This was attributed to its diversified business venture and the launching of airlines between Australian and Tokyo in Japan. The profits contrast sharply with pre tax loss made by the British Airlines. Group’s sales level for the year ended 2009 increased to 2.579 billion pounds up from the previous year. This figure included sales from virgin holiday. The profits was an outcome of new polices regarding premium travel and enhanced services in the travel sect or which subsequently attracted about 5.77m passengers for the ended 2009. Alliance between Virgin Atlantic and Regus group in May 2009 benefitted flyer program. If global recession is brought under control, it is most likely that Virgin Group will generate more sales and profits.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Virgin Group Marketing Performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Marketing Organizations struggle to capture new customers and preserve old once in a competitive environment. This is among the aims of forming marketing strategy for a business i.e. to be competitive in the globalised world (Wright, 12). While recognizing the fact that Virgin Group is an international company with customers located in various countries, consumer based approach to marketing is utilized. The company conducts research about customer preferences on a continuous basis. This allows them to avail products which are m ore preferred by the customer. They can further improve their services after evaluating feedback from the customer. Virgin integrates the following dimensions in marketing their product and services: product, position, price and promotion (Mohan, 42). The virgin Brand The strength of Virgin brand found application in many businesses including airline, Virgin Media, financial sectors, motor vehicle industry, train services and even telecommunication industry (Wright, 13). The brand values pleasure, value for money, superiority of the product, improvement, aggressive challenge and excellent customer service. It despises incompetence, simplicity, and disregard to customer care. Virgin group gives licenses to its subsidiary business units but for the case of Virgin mobile in Australia owned by Singtel Optus, the arrangement was a simple agreement for license. Virgin Management Limited is part of Virgin’s Group shareholder that manages the interest of Richard Brandon. VML also ac ts as a service sector providing recommendations and management services to companies in Virgin Group. Any investment decisions are channeled through Virgin Management limited before executing them. Products Sectors in Virgin Group offer competitive products and services. The travel sector provides Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Travel. There are also Virgin books which publish and distribute books with other stationeries. Virgin holiday is characterized by the ability of the customer to book a holiday and fly Atlantic. Other products available to the customer are the independent recording label V2 music and fitness clubs located throughout UK. Pricing strategy Pricing strategy employed by Virgin group is highly sensitive to the demand and affordability of the customer. An example in the travel sector is Virgin Atlantic which offers a variety of six price level for the customer to choose from. Their objective is to ensure that customers get value for what they spend. It is essential to note that customers are ready to expend their money if the level of satisfaction is greater especially in Britain where standards of living are high (Chekitan, 10). This is the reason why Virgin Group offers competitive products and services. Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Group bases its pricing strategy on factors which affect the global market. Examples of these externalities include: inflation, interest rates, political instability, recent global recession and natural disaster i.e. volcanic eruption. Richard developed ‘premium-tization’ an aspect which brings about division of market. The trend forces consumers to demand quality product at a higher price level. Place (Market segmentation) This signifies a location area where a product meets the consumer. Segmentation as utilized by virgin group is an important element where leadership in the market is still in its development stages. There has been tendency by the organization to establish itself well especially in its best and specialty sectors. Some of the strong holds of the company are: the transport sector i.e. airline subsector, newly established mobile stores in Europe and United States (Bower, 21). Rapid expansion of distribution network and development in airline industry is a trend towards achieving customer satisfaction. In addition to market segmentation, virgin group is capitalizing on the new world order of e-commerce. The company can now deliver products and services to its clients at any position in the globe within the shortest time possible via electronic purchase and physical delivery using cargo planes. Virgin is always in the forefront following its ability to implement actions within a recommended time frame. Promotion To reach intended customers, advertising and other aspects of promotion must be employed as a marketing strategy (Kotler, 39). Various channels of communication are exploited with an objective of conveying relevant information about a product or a service to potential customers. Any successful advertisement brings about increased sales and ultimately more revenue to the market. Promotion plays a vital role in growth of Virgin Group by a system of taking information about their product and service to the proximity of the customer (Anon, 15). Internet advertisement regarding quality services offered by Virgin Trains and Atlantic is advantageous to customers since it helps them in making choices before booking. Discounts given on advanced booking and favorable deal to those travelling in group is an incentive to customers. Websites for these transport sectors are very efficient such that it has received an ‘A’ and ‘AA’ rating by the WCAG (Bower, 15). Access to the website is fast enough to guarantee immediate dissemination of information. This is one of the best criteria to expose a product to its customers. Success of virgin is credited to the whole workforce whose talents are challenged constantly by the ever changing consumer environment. Absence of bureaucracy in Virgin Group givens people an opportunity to share their skills, values, ideas and expertise in a positive manner. According to (Koichi, 52), a performing organization is most likely to receive both media and cus tomer’s attention. Recommendations After a profound analysis of marketing strategy engaged by Virgin Group, it is prudent to consider a variety of strategy options available to the management. The management may rethink integrating in the planning process both inside and outside environment of the companies. This means that management must review social, political and demographic descriptions affecting directly or indirectly running of the business. These external variables are critical in developing internal strength i.e. customer experience, technological progress, channel bonding, and market sensing. Highly globalised company has to consider centralizing its management so that information flow along the bureaucratic channel is retained. A centralized management as well means that a person who is given certain responsibilities must be answerable to a member at a higher rank. This will measure performance level of an individual in an office and consequently take control of its resources. Although virgin group values its customers, they must focus on building customer experience centers in their different locations. Apart from giving personalized service to their customers, the center will be mandated to supply the management with data regarding customers’ preferences. Such data is valuable when introducing a new product which will need to penetrate the market fast. Conclusion This paper offered a vivid explanation of the Virgin Group. Richard Branson orchestrated the inception of the firm after succeeding in his magazine venture. The business expanded from one business venture into a collection of more than 200 sectors in 20 countries. As detailed in the literature, profits of the group are always on the increase with a record of more than 68.4 billion pounds in the year ended May, 2009. Cumulatively, sales level reached a value of 2.579m while Virgin Atlantic registered a passenger rate of 5.77m during the financial yea r2009. The success of virgin group is attributed to high regard placed on customers in addition to marketing strategy employed. The paper is very clear on pricing, positioning, product and promotion strategy of the firm. As a policy recommendation virgin group should centralize the role of management in order to take a full control over its resources and also instill in individuals a sense of responsibility. Works Cited Allen, Katie. â€Å"Branson sells Virgin Megastores†. The Guardian Newspaper 17 Sept. 2007: 20-21. Anon, Philips. â€Å"Virgin to close its West End make-up store†. London Evening Standard Newspaper , 1 Feb. 2000: 15-20. Ansoff, Igor. Strategies for Diversification. Harvard Business Review, 35.5 (2001): 113- 124. Bower, Tom. Branson. 4th Estate: Limited publishers, 2001. Branson, Richard. Losing My Virginity. London: Virgin Books Limited, 2002. Chekitan, Dev, and Schultz, Don. â€Å"In the Mix: A Customer-Focused Approach Can Bring the Current Marketing Mix into the 21st C entury†. Marketing Management 14 .1 (2005): 10-20. Koichi, Shimizu. â€Å"Advertising Theory and Strategies†. Tokyo: Souseisha Book Company, 2009. Kotler, Philips, and Keller, Kevin. â€Å"1â€Å". A Framework for Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. Mohan, Ramesh. International Marketing. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005. Wright, Robins. â€Å"Branson urges  £1bn rail spend†. Financial times 20 May. 2009: 12-15. This research paper on Virgin Group Marketing Performance was written and submitted by user Rylen S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Asian Indians in America essays

Asian Indians in America essays Their struggle as immigrant minority and major contributions to the American society Asian Indians come from an area with the second largest population in the world, but form only one of the smallest minorities in the United States. America was influenced by their religious and political beliefs long before the first immigrants arrived in the 19th century. The congressional act of 1947 granted them citizenship. Now, Asian Indians hold many important occupations (students, teachers, writers, musicians, scientists). Their most important contributions are geared toward engineering and the sciences. India was in a great shape up until the end of 19th century. When British arrived, the country was depleted of its wealth and resources. The poor had no choice but to come to the United States (The Land of the Free and the Land of Opportunity). The United States, due to the abundance of jobs and scarcity of labor, became a Mecca for immigrants from all over the world. The United States, in the nineteenth century, remained a strong magnet to immigrants, with offers of jobs and land for farms. Asians and Italians came for work, Russians came to escape persecution, and Jews came for religious freedom. Immigrants from all over the world including Europe, China, and Japan wanted to experience the freedom of improving your life and being able to take care for ones family. East Indians represented a big group that wanted to take part in American culture. The large majorities from India were Punjabis, from a region called the Punjab. Most of these immigrants were young men, between 16 and 35 years old. They left their families in India, and came here in small groups of cousins and village neighbors. Thus, the family and community ties remained very strong. They had several reasons to come to America. They were repressed by the British rule and had no land to farm on. To make matters worse, famine dev...

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Islamic art and architecture from the seventh to the thirteenth Essay

Islamic art and architecture from the seventh to the thirteenth century - Essay Example Islam’s influence and presence in Spain dates back to the 9th century, when Muslims emigrated to the west. In 1492, most Muslims were expelled and the few who managed to stay back publicly proclaimed Catholicism to avoid expulsion. (Spain, Demographics, Euro-Islam info. Country profiles, euro-islam.info/pages/spain.html) The powerful Muslim armies in their quest for expansion began invading countries that stretched from the Western borders of India, across Persia and Northern Africa, to Spain and Southern France. In order to establish their faith in these countries, they constructed Mosques and prayer halls of architectural brilliance. They remained for 800 years in Europe until in 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella over-rode them. During their reign, the Muslims perceived the need to establish artistically styled monuments to help expand their faith and compete with other religions. Their success in this endeavor led to the presence of today’s remarkable Arts & Architectures (The development of Islamic art: Graeco-Roman, Lesson 5 Art part: Islamic art, www.dartmouth.edu) 2.0 Executive Summary Art was predominant during the 7th to 13th century Europe. With the arrival of the Muslims, art was not just artistic, but it was purposeful as well. However, not all Islamic art had a specific religious purpose, unique to the Islamic faith. One of the most distinguishing features of Islamic art is the absence of an image of religious context. Idolatry is considered a grave sin. It is believed that any form of human worship is profane to the idea of Allah as the only God. This clearly distinguishes Islamic art from Christian and/or other religious arts. In architecture, painting, and carpet-weaving, Muslims limit their portrayals of humans or animals. To Muslims, decoration meant use of calligraphy, flowers and leaves. Geometrical and floral patterns also adorned Islamic art and architecture (The Islamic World to 1600, www.ucalgary.ca)3. This research paper will strive to identify the influences and brilliance of different Muslim art and architectural in Spain, and its impact on non-Muslim Spanish people. The paper also looks at the various centers of art in Spain. 3.0 Islamic Art and Architecture With the use of colors and balance between design and form, Islamic art creates a visual impact. Such is its artistic appeal that it transcends distance in time and space, as well as differences in language, culture, and creed. Islamic art not only invites a closer look but also beckons the viewer to learn more. Spain, along with other European countries like France, Germany, and Austria became targets for Muslim expansionism. The army brought with them their cultural and spiritual ideology. Their most important building was the mosque, followed by the royal palace. Early mosques were square in shape. Gradually with expansion in size and strength, this requirement led to larger and more elaborate prayer halls. In the late 8th century, Spain saw the construction of the Mosque of Cordoba, with a courtyard in the centre, roofed arcades, and minarets; towers that extend vertically. This mosque had a spacious hall to accommodate more worshippers, a definite move to encourage more and more worshippers and spread Islam. They were built solid to withstand external influences, a contrast to their palaces, which were built from unbaked bricks and/or plaster. The Muslim rulers were not too keen on permanent structures, preferring to abandon them later. The purpose to spread their religion led them to construct significant architectural marvels that would leave a lasting impression on the people. A few of these are mentioned herein:

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Review of Selected Journal Papers and Online Material Essay

Review of Selected Journal Papers and Online Material - Essay Example Statisctics across the globe indicate an increase in emissions in the European Union between the years 1990-2006. The authors argue that though efforts have been made in increasing fuel efficiency, the emissions from the transport sector still pose a challenge. The article presents literature evidence on the positive impact of compact cities in mitigating emissions. The main argument of the article is that compact cities reduce the overall commuting length. The authors raise an argument concerning suitable policies that would make the positive effect last. They argue that though compacting cities reduce environmental pollution from the transport sector perspective, it may have a counter effect. People and firms may need to relocate due to the effect on wages and household rents. The authors of the article seek to establish the best policy tradeoff that would arrive at an appropriate population density that allows the environmental impact skew to the beneficial side (Gaigne, Riou, Thi sse, 2012, p. 1425). Stone, Hess and Frumkin (2010, p. 1425) do not support the opinion presented by Gaigne et al. In their article, they argue that the city form has a profound effect on the climate. Compact cities can encourage climate related fatalities. They raise the issue of Extreme Heat Events, a phenomenon that involves the rise of temperatures in the cities by a magnitude of up to 100C compared to surrounding countryside. Compact cities call for building configurations that aid in absorbing and trapping heat. Low-density land use and sprawling over expansive areas have a spillover effect due to the increasing distance. This is in agreement with Gaigne et al. Walters and Ewing (2009, p. 196) observed that vehicle and fuel technology were not sufficient in cutting the carbon dioxide emissions. Becky and Chow (2011, p. 552) also observed that reducing the vehicle miles could have a positive impact on reducing emissions. The two articles support the role compact cities would ha ve on reducing use of vehicles. Congestion in compact cities discourages people from using their own means of transport, thus cutting on the emissions. Congestion in the compact cities is a limiting factor. In addition to traffic congestion and air pollution, urban transport affects the climate (Creutzig & He, 2009, p. 120). Williams, Joynt and Hopkins (2010, p. 105) raise a concern that urban areas under consideration of compacting are not well adapted to deal with anticipated changes. Boussauw, Neutens and Witlox (2012, p. 687) argue that compact cities are beneficial in reducing commuter distance for employees and residents. This has a corresponding positive effect on reducing emissions. This view corresponds to Hamin and Gurran (2009, p. 238). They, however, recognize loopholes for possible policy conflicts arising from local contributions of such mitigation to climate change. Jensen, Christensen, & Gram-Hanssen, (2011, p.1) argue that the benefits that can be accrued from a com pact city setting are ambiguous. This is in agreement with Gaigne et al who view the benefits as a tradeoff. In another article, Nygard, Cao, Csordas, Larssen, Liu, Strand and Zhang (2012, p. 438) argue that Chinese cities have succeeded in bringing down emissions. This accrues from the congestion that discourages people from driving. Such a model can be replicated to other cities of the world. Mueller and Steiner (2011, p. 94) emphasize the need to exercise equity in formulation of policies for compact cities. They argue that

Monday, November 18, 2019

Dunnings eclectic Principle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dunnings eclectic Principle - Essay Example The given three principles have been taken from various theoretical approaches; hence John Dunning labeled his approach as ‘eclectic’. It was Dunning who in the year 1980 which was given in Dickens in the year 1992 that any company would like to get itself engaged in the production arena internationally if the following three conditions are present. (Dicken p.109)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Every company possesses few specific advantages which if not in possession by any competing companies belonging from other nationalities where the advantage should be owner-specific in nature. (Dicken p.109)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2. These kind of advantages are mostly exploited by certain companies itself rather than leasing or selling them to different companies. Citing it in different words, every company tries to internationalize the nature of ownership-specific advantages; and(Dicken p.109)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3. it is more profitable for every company in exploiting the assets in international market other than doing it in domestic areas. It is true that factors like location-specific plays an important role with internationalization of the very nature of owner-specific while determining whether and where the overseas production takes place. (Dicken p.109)      Ã‚  The Advantage of ownership-specific is an asset which is internal to the company itself. In this case knowledge of specific type, human skill or organization and all these do require proprietary right for its use, like any right which is legally protected. (Dicken p.109) Extent and pattern of the internationalization its value-chain operations abroad: Calypso Rose when she was 29 became renowned in the business of accessories and bags. This particular business is now six years now and it is aiming at young women and teenage girl. This is a age of globalization and in this time it is necessary to make the business global. Clippy bags are the brand name and have gained recognition. They have kept this thing in account that global expansion strategy is in needful of the present hour. Presently the business surrounds the Japan and European market. (GLE Group pp. 1-3) Calypso Rose the tycoon business woman has been successfully running the business since the age of 23. The particular brand name ‘Clippy’ now has been successful in carryimg out international venture in different markets thereby gaining the company to strengthen its fundamental base in UK. They could do so by taking the help from the team of London International of UK Investment and trade. (GLE Group pp. 1-3) The brand Clippy brand has established a good stronghold in UK market before they were recognized internationally in the year 2007 by London International Trade Adviser, Gail Williams. the advice given by Gail Williams in the strategic area was useful in the early stages of the company especially in the export journey which helped the company to bring f orth the brand Clippy in the international market. During the time of recession in the year 2008, Calypso in a very intelligent manner expanded and modified her business for survival in this weird market. (GLE Group pp. 1-3) Utilization of certain schemes, by Calypso, likes the Trade Access Program (TAP) and Passport for Export so that their product can be put up on international base. In addition, the assistance from an international adviser on trade has helped Clippy a lot in formalizing the export strategy for targeting the markets of Europe. The funding which the company received from TAP helped them in exhibiting in the European market. During this period Calypso met her European distributor. Being a small company it believed in cash flow so funding became invaluable. With the success, which it got initially, helped the compan

Saturday, November 16, 2019

Dominos History and Analysis

Dominos History and Analysis History of Dominos Dominos Pizza was brought to America by Italian immigrants in the 1800s and it grew in popularity as a pie of choice and rose to popularity hence necessitating the nee for Dominos chain to be created. The companys business model was its reliance on delivery (which was set at 30 minutes) and a focus on efficient and streamlined processes of taking pizza orders, preparing them and delivering them to consumers. With Dominos success on its pizza delivery time the company it appeared as though the company substituted quality service for quality product hence the decline in Dominos shares. Dominos crisis. With the success of Dominos, customers where also demanding more from their pizza maker, they wanted better tasting pizza that had flavour. From the material provided, it is evident that Dominos became comfortable in their position to recognized as the leader in Pizza delivery and did not carry out any market research in other to find ways to improve their product and guarantee customer satisfaction. Marketing research generally comprises of a product research in terms of market need that a business wants to satisfy as well as the size and characteristics of the market (new or old) by identifying consumer preferences and buying behavior. Another reason for the Dominos Crisis was that the 30 minutes delivery time was not uniform for every Dominos outlet. Depending on how big a Dominos shop service area was the 30 minutes delivery time worked perfectly, but where the area is large and considering other factors the timing was different. Attribute analysis Attribute analysis is the process of breaking down a problem, idea, or thing into component parts and then thinking about the attributes of the problem rather than the thing itself by taking into consideration the crucial aspects of a companys business model and turning it around (IAF, 2009). What this means is that with rising customer dissatisfaction which is evident not only through surveys, feedbacks and word of mouth. There was the need for the Pizza turnaround programme because as at 2009 Dominos quarter revenue had dropped by 6.5% and as such there was the need for a massive overhaul of the companies financial and operational parameters. What was considered in this regard is how great pizza could be made while still maintaining the unique selling point which was the timing (30 minutes delivery time). Attribute analysis was used by simply identifying key problems that had been collated through customers feedback. This feedback was put together and to ensure customer loyalty product was improved and this improvement saw a 65% increase in repeat purchase by customers (Worldwide 2017). By meeting the challenges head on the turn around team did a road show with their franchises introducing the new and improved pizza as well as carried out blind test road show. From the road show a number of customers preferred the new taste. The success of any new initiative by an organization is highly dependant on the involvement of every member of the team directly involved in the product. Attribute analysis helped Dominos identify specific areas that needed improvement and then the next step was to inform senior management team of the negative feedback they had received from customers and management team saw the need to immediately turn around their pizza operations. In general, this case points to the fact that for any brand to successfully transform itself to one capable of competing for customers with the competition, creating a strong position for future growth is reliant on customer feedback, continued effort to improve product offering and in taking feedbacks and customer suggestions seriously. Concept testing approaches in my opinion created an opportunity for customers to be aware of the various efforts been made by Dominos to satisfy them through new and improved products. This no doubt helped Dominos grow and position itself favourably in the hearts of its customers. References Australian food News, February 2015. Dominos attributes record profits to innovations and new initiatives. Retrieved from: http://www.ausfoodnews.com.au/2015/02/11/dominos-attributes-record-profits-to-innovations-and-new-initiatives.html. Accessed 13 January 2017. IAF methods database. October 2009. Attribute analysis. Retrieved from: http://www.iaf-methods.org/node/11163. Accessed 13 January 2017. Worldwide.com. February 2017. How Dominos repositioned itself from pizza delivery to mealtime solution. Retrieved from: http://iris-worldwide.com/news/how-dominos-repositioned-itself-from-pizza-delivery-to-mealtime-solution/. Accessed 13 January 2017.

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

Hannibal :: essays research papers

Hannibal: Smokin' Is Voluntary/Two Parties My ASS!/Other Random Stuff **Disclaimer: The hate on this page is omni-directional, and you will most likely be offended. I usually update and add to the content when I'm pissed, so don't get your fucking panties in a bunch if you hear something that you disagree with or is insulting. And if you do, you fuckin' suck cocks and should never use the internet, which is filled with free speech and opposing opinions. Fuck off asshole.** Goddamn, if I hear or see another add, public service anouncement, or other jerk off on TV telling me how legal, private, cigarette companies are responsible for people starting and continuing to smoke, I'm going to load my rifle, sit in front of a mirror, and see what it would look like to paint a room with my brains!!! Smoking is fucking voluntary! If you think it's wrong, if you think it shortens your lifespan, or has any other effect other than the ones that we already know fuck you up, don't do it!!!! Son of a bitch, don't scapegoat a seller/producer of a legal and overly regulated product if you can't get it through your skull that inhaling any kind of smoke will destroy lung tissue! Take some fucking responsibility and/or accountability you bleeding heart burnouts!!! Message To Gore...To Bush: Fuck off! You both suck, you dishonor the memory of the revolutionaries who took up the gun to assure that the soil we stand on would be free. C'mon Gore!!! Not fundraising? Geez, you have to be a lobotomized mental patient/a hardcore Democrat to actually believe that! Maybe if you took long hard look at what the teacher's unions are doing to the youth of America by controling you (i.e., making it so that public schools maintain a virtual monopoly on education and therefore removing any need to compete and improve in-class conditions) or how you betrayed everyone who voted you into the senate (since you sold out to Clinton when you were an upstanding Tennessee man who voted to get the government off our asses when it came to gun control), you'd do the world a favor by killing yourself. O Bushy Boy... Ah, you disgrace the history of the Republican party...You trivialize everything that the Republican party used to stand for (less government, control of your own money, instilling moral/ethical values)...You're the lesser of two evils and most American will choose you...but the CIA chose the lesser of two evils years ago in the Middle East, decided to fund him, train him,

Monday, November 11, 2019

Adopting Telemedicine in developing countries

ICTs are technologies that have spread widely and are cheaper for use by the general public. Even though information and communication technologies could tackle some of the heath care challenges that face the modern society, the utilization of ICTs is faced by numerous challenges for social as well as historical transformations that are associated with other natural rights.The case is not different in the field of telemedicine. Telemedicine is an example of ICT that has been used in the world for over forty years. Modern telemedicine applications employ high quality image and video in addition to audio capacities.These technologies range form excellent resolution still images to complex teleconferencing apparatus. Recent developments in ICT are encouraging and they include the use of internet, wireless ICT diffusion, and the exchange of medical information electronically in addition to remote consultations.Infrastructure factures that have an effect on the outcomes of telemedicine in clude: the national ICT infrastructure in addition to the governments preparedness, approach, as well as policies towards information and communication technology. Technically sophisticated telemedicine applications are currently employed across a wide range of healthcare settings.This technology allows medical personnel to transmit images through mobile phones and sophisticated wireless devices (Martà ­nez, Villarroel, Seoane, and Pozo 2005, p. 1).3.1.2 E-Health PoliciesVarious shareholders of the telemedicine sector have numerous opportunities to become deeply involved in the development policies that affect the industry. Shareholders of this sector include vendors of information technology, manufacturers of medical devices, health care professionals, decision makers and the government.E-health policies are set in such a way as to improve network capacity, enhance ability of transcending geo-political, social, economic and cultural obstacles.Policies should be set in such a way a s to allow teleconsultation beyond national borders. Patients in addition to medical care professionals should be offered with a chance of seeking evidence based opinion as well as treatment from overseas through teleconsultation (Lee, Mun, Levine and Ro 2000, p. 28).3.3 Capabilities of health sector institutionThe modern health care system has undergone numerous modifications in order to meet the ever increasing heath needs of the population. One of the modifications is the implementation of telecommunication in health care. All modifications in the health care sector are carried out with the patient being the center of focus.Telemedicine and telegraphy are some of the most recent telecommunication strategies that have been incorporated in the health care sector. Currently, digital images of a patient can be sent over a wireless device to a medical personnel and medical consultations carried out over the internet (Tanriverdi and Iacon, 1998, p, 40).3.4 Analysis of Telemedicine case studies in developing countriesThe emergence to telemedicine is associated with the search for communication-oriented solutions to make it easy for rural populations to access medical services. Telemedicine is considered as one of the most appropriate ways through which contemporary medical services can reach the underserved regions (Lee, Mun, Levine, and Ro 2000, p. 16).Reality has however, gone in a different direction. Extensive studies with telemedicine in developing nations have not yet demonstrated the potential of telemedicine. There are a number of factors that need to be implemented in order that telemedicine services in rural areas become sustainable.A highly robust organizational strategy needs to be implemented, a radio based system should be erected and resources utilized properly; remote maintenance systems should be implemented; a high technological base should be established; and all information and communication should be satisfied through simple and synchronous sy stems (Kifle, Salmon, Okoli, and Mbarika 2008, p. 5).Despite the numerous benefits associated with telemedicine, the program has been slow to come into routine use in both rural and urban zones.4. Evaluation of the current situation of Telemedicine in rural and urban zoneTelemedicine holds a great hope for health care and medical centers both in rural areas and urban centers. Rural areas in particular have for long been faced by shortage of medical personnel, scarcity of means of transportation in addition to other access issues such as unfavorable weather conditions.Telemedicine allows for teleconsultation that utilize a variety of technological advancements such as voice over internet, digital images, digital video teleconferencing, in addition to other emergency services (Martà ­nez, Villarroel, Seoane, and Pozo 2005, p. 70).However, there are various issues that affect the implementation of telemedicine in rural areas. These include: poor infrastructure, limited bandwidth avail ability in network systems, and scarcity of internet providers.Telemedicine is not only about the provision of medical care in the rural areas, but it is very beneficial in linking suburban, urban and inner city medical facilities in a network offering intensive medical care services (Richard 2001, p. 3).4.1 Advantages of using Telemedicine technologiesAn increased use of telemedicine would bring about a number of benefits ranging from enhanced medical care, better utilization of health professionals, increased patients compliance, to enhanced delivery of medical care services outside clinics and hospital setting and in rural as well as the underserved regions.Telemedicine allows for frequent monitoring of vital sign information rather than using periodic visit by physicians. It also improves care of the elderly, physically incapacitated as well as the home bound patients, because it reduces hospital visits thereby increasing convenience and compliance for incapacitated patients.As a result it improves general health of the community and population because it reduces exposure to various illnesses from other patients. It also empowers patients in relation to their own health. It is a source of innovative and creative employment in the health care system.It is a significant strategy of tackling likely future scarcity of medical personnel.   It brings down the rate of death, injuries and infections as a result of medical errors due to inaccurate patient information.Presence of telemedicine programs in rural areas enhances care by reducing transportation costs; deploying medical professionals and specialists; and through providing medical care delivery regardless of geographical barriers (Hein 2009, p. 9).4.2 Challenges of adapting TelemedicineThere are numerous challenges to generating dependable evidence concerning the effects of the use of telemedicine. Scrutiny is rarely carried out as a fundamental part of implementation, and as a result resources are not a bsolutely dedicated to evaluation.However, there are times when resources are dedicated to scrutiny after implementation, therefore prospective gathering of baseline data is impossible. Retrospective gathering of medical data is faced by numerous hurdles in terms of appropriate source identification in addition to collection techniques.These issues make difficult the scrutiny of various interventions, even as the actual nature of evaluation of telemedicine presents further difficulties (Brear 2006, p. 24). Besides evaluation, other challenges that face telemedicine, as indicated by Paul, Pearlson and McDaniel (1999, p 281), include: various social, cultural, economic, technical and organizational hurdles that health care systems must deal with before achieving the full benefits of telemedicine.Other factors that derail the implementation of telemedicine in developing countries are: poor telecommunication and electric power infrastructure; domination in addition to high cost of inter net services; lack of government involvement; difficulties in sustaining implementation of telemedicine; substandard organizational strategies; and user discontent   with low band-width as well as delayed response.Patients, medical professionals and decision makers lack essential knowledge on telemedicine services as well as their potential for medical care. Lack of proper funding is the other challenge that faces telemedicine.Despite its recommendation by the world health organization telemedicine is yet to be realized as a technical service in many national ministries of health (Kifle, Salmon, Okoli, and Mbarika n.d, p. 3).5. ConclusionsIt can therefore be concluded that telemedicine is one of the most significant modern medical strategies that can be employed in tackling the numerous health care challenges that face populations living in both urban and rural areas.   Various benefits of telemedicine include: improvement of patient care, reduction of patient transfers to terti ary health centers and providing physicians a good access to tertiary consultation.Telemedicine improves the general health of the community because it reduces expose to various illnesses from other patients through reduction of hospital visits. There are however, various challenges that are associated with implementation of telemedicine and these include: evaluation challenges, poor telecommunication, misinterpretation of information, and lack of awareness and commitment by the government and decision makers.Telemedicine is faced by various issues including information technology policies, E-Health policies, and data security policies. Even though there are numerous benefits associated with telemedicine, the program has been slow to come into routine practice both in rural and urban zones. Bibliography:Brear, M. 2006, Evaluating telemedicine: lessons and challenges, Health InformationManagement Journal, Vol 35, no. 2, pp. 24Hein, M. 2009, Telemedicine: An important force in the tra nsformation of healthcare,Journal of High Speed Networks, Vol 9, no. 15, pp. 9 –30

Saturday, November 9, 2019

Louis Leakey Essays - Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Leakey, Stone Age

Louis Leakey Essays - Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Leakey, Stone Age Louis Leakey Louis Leakey Discovering the Secrets of Humankind's Past Louis Leakey was born to be an archaeologist, for his childhood in Africa truly prepared him for the field life he would later lead. The son of missionaries Harry and Mary Leakey, Louis grew up in Kenya near Nairobi, among the Kikuyu African tribe who the elder Leakeys were trying to convert. Despite intervening periods in which the Leakeys moved back to England, Louis grew up practically as a Kikuyu tribe member, and at the age of eleven he not only built his own traditional hut in which to live but was also initiated as a member of the Kikuyu tribe. It was within this hut that the beginnings of Leakeys archaelogical aspirations took place. In one section he started a personal museum, collected all things naturalistic, from bird eggs to animal skulls. It was in 1916, at the age of fourteen, when Leakey first truly realized that he was meant for archaeology; after reading the account of stone-age men entitled Days Before History he was hooked. After reading about the arrowheads and a xeheads created by these people, Louis began collecting and classifying as many pieces of obsidian flakes and tools as he could find. After confirmation by a prehistory expert that these were truly stone tools of ancient Africans, truly links to the past, Leakey knew that the rest of his life would be devoted towards discovering the secrets of the prehistoric ancestors of humankind. Despite not being accustomed to the school structure back in England and the accompanying problems he had in public school, Leakey was accepted into Cambridge in 1922. However, blows to the head sustained during rugby games resulted in epilepsy and headaches for Leakey, and he had to leave school in 1923. This, however, was a blessing in disguise, for Leakey landed a job as an African expert on an archaeological mission to Tendaguru in what is now Tanzania. He was to accompany the archaeologist and dinosaur bone expert William E. Cutler. With his fluency in Swahili, Leakey soon orgainized an entire safari to the site. Working with and observing Cutler, Leakey learned more about the technical side of the search for and preservation of fossil bones than [he] could have gleaned from a far longer period of theoretical study. Many dinosaur bones were dug up although a complete skeleton was never found. After several months Leakey was forced to leave, leaving Cutler to continue. Back in En gland, Leakey wrote many articles and letters about the dig. Cutler, however, died in Africa a few months later, a victim of Blackwater fever. Leakey returned to Cambridge and studied anthropology. From these studies and independent ones, Leakey developed the view that early man had originated in Africa, not in Asia as most scholars believed at the time. He became fascinated with the Olduvai Gorge site and the Homo sapiens skeleton discovered by German paleontologist Hans Reck. Great controversy surrounded Recks find because the age of the skeleton could not be proven. Further, Reck could not return to the site because, as he was German and Britain had won that region of Africa in World War I, he was not able to go there. Leakey was fascinated with the site and told Reck that they would one day go back. For the time being, this had to be put on hold. Finishing finals, Leakey graduated with excellent marks and recieved many grants for research in Africa. He was twenty-three, and he was about to lead his own expeditions. Over the next few years Leakey dug at many sites, finding many stone tools, animal bones, and other artifacts. His search, however, was for proof of the use of a specific Chellean hand-axe style found in other parts of the world. This he found in 1929, and its discovery pushed back the age of the Great Rift Valley in Africa a great deal. Further, it provided critical evidence for a level of sophistication in East Africa equal to that of European cultures at the time. By this time Leakeys work at caught the attention of the archaeological community and he began to receive much acclaim. In November 1929 he returned to England with a

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Prohibition1 essays

Prohibition1 essays As under a spell, the people had suffered this act to be brought to its fatal conclusion, but with the first touch of cold reality the charm was undone, and the law appeared in its true aspect. Brought about by the Eighteenth Amendment and enforced through the Volstead Act, lasted for over a decade. Despite a growing lack of public support for both Prohibition and restraint itself, the ban on alcohol continued throughout the United States-at least in the law books. In practice, however, National Prohibition was much less effective than restraint and Prohibition leaders had hoped, in the end causing more problems than it solved. Once passed, Prohibition directly led to the increase in crime and corruption during the twenties, the public health problems associated with bootleg liquor and alcohol substitutes, the irritated tensions between religious, racial, and social groups, and the political disturbance in response to its existence. Yet in the end, it was the discussion of the supre me public hatred of the Amendment, caused by all of these factors combined, which brought about Prohibitions repeal. Yet Prohibition did enjoy some success. Records reveal that alcohol consumption did initially drop after the onset of National Prohibition and the Volstead Act. However, this decrease on a national level was not all that significant compared to the effect of previous temperance measures in specific communities. Also, after this initial drop alcohol consumption continued to rise steadily throughout Prohibition to the point where it was thought consumption would actually surpass pre-Prohibition levels. The same was true of alcohol related diseases-while initially declining, alcoholism and alcohol-related illness climbed to new heights, all while Prohibition was still in effect (Thornton, Failure 7071). Thus, in the long run, the initial success of Prohibition was soon reversed. Crime, however, was a problem thro...

Monday, November 4, 2019

Industrial tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Industrial tourism - Essay Example One of the things that Abbey hates most about modernity is the construction of highways and access roads through or into wildernesses and national parks, whether it is to connect distant places or to make them more accessible. According to him, the roads and highways reduce the â€Å"old magic† of real, genuine amusement that comes from using less-motorized means to explore the wild such as walking on foot or using bicycles. He strongly accuses the notion that the purpose of the roads is to enhance accessibility so that more people can experience nature in lesser time. To him, accessibility is just a curtain to blind the people of modernity’s real intention, which to him is making money. His argument is that no place is inaccessible if one is willing to, and that accessibility does not make sense since people have been too extreme regions of the world unaided by heavy motorized mechanisms. â€Å"What does accessibility mean? ...even Mount McKinley, even Everest, have b een summoned by men on foot †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Abbey 47). The second reason why Abbey is against modernity is that whatever it claims to be doing for the people is not true, claiming that the industrialization of tourism is merely for monetary gain. From his perspective, the motels, automotive industries, oil corporations, gas retailers, road constructors, and all other parties involved in the modernization of nature are all in the industry to make money, and that they care for neither the people nor nature itself. In addition, he reveals that in addition to being big business, it is a well-organized cartel inspired by the politics of the land. As he puts it, â€Å"Industrial Tourism is a big business. It means money †¦ and are represented in Congress with strength far greater than is justified†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (48). Abbey offers some corrective measures to change the attitudes of people from the ones already stained by modernization. For one, people should not take automobiles to n ational parks or in the wilderness. Just like they are not taking them to churches for their being â€Å"holy† so be it with parks as they are also holy. He suggests that people should be more natural: use their feet or enter the parks on animal backs. Second, he recommends that further construction of roads in the parks should stop, and the already existing roads to remain for use by those on bicycles. Lastly, he says that park rangers should do their work; to go out into the parks to guard and guide visitors, and not sit behind desks in booths selling tickets. Abbey adds that these measures will bring back the good old days of hiking, camping, and enjoying the wild in its natural form, not to mention that it is cheaper than using motorized assistance. He argues quite sensibly. If one forecasts the future, in the days when the population will have expanded, then it means the need for constructing more roads to connect more cities and towns that will have come up will grow. T his means more roads will appear in the wild. In addition, if we do not respect the natural parks and the wilderness, it means our population will lead to our encroaching on the natural geographies to create more dwelling places. Therefore, his argument for the monitoring of the growing population is very true. Abbey however chips in a little acknowledgement

Saturday, November 2, 2019

Ethics and Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethics and Diversity - Essay Example Prior to that, all of the Equal Pay Act (1970), the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), the Race Relations Act (1976) and the Race Relations Amendment Act (2000), sought to ensure against both direct and indirect discrimination in the provision of goods and services and within the workplace. From the legal standpoint, therefore, diversity is obligatory. Legislature and regulations aside, the question is whether or not firms have an ethical duty to embrace workforce diversity and to ensure that they have a diverse workforce. While some scholars have argued that workforce diversity cannot be defined as an ethical obligation insofar as it could lead to the hiring of less qualified candidates simply because of their race, religion, or ethnicity, among others (Darr, 2002), other scholars maintain that it is an ethical obligation (Ludlum and Mascaloinov, 2004). Pending the presentation of a brief understanding of the implications of diversity and a review of the argument against it as an ethical obligation, the present research will argue in favour of workforce diversity as an ethical responsibility towards which all firms must aspire. The concept of diversity is an all-inclusive one and, refers to the collectivity of human differences and similarities along a given dimension (Cox, 1993). As pertains to a workforce, Caudron and Hayes (1997) maintain that both dimensions and measures of diversity include socioeconomic and psychographic characteristics, race, cultural and ethnic heritage, religion and belief systems, gender and sexual preferences and, age. Other significant dimensions and measures of diversity, although lesser appreciated and researched in relation to intra-organisational relations and dynamics, are political affiliations and socioeconomic and functional backgrounds (Gordon, 1995; Caudron and Hayes, 1997; Stockdale and Crosby, 2003; Gardenswartz , 2003; Barak, 2005). Arguing the above definition to be unjustifiably expansive, some researchers have called for a more precise focus on a particular set of diversity dimensions and measures. These are race, culture, gender, religion, and ethnicity. Indeed, by expanding the parameters of diversity to include age and sexual preferences, attention has been deflected from the more seminal of the diversity categories, chief amongst which are race and ethnicity (Cox, Lobel and McLeod, 1991; Polzer, Milton and Swann, 2002; Arrendondo, 2004; Squires, 2005; Ocon, 2006). It is in relation to the more seminal of these differences that scholars have argued the ethics of their implementation. 3 Suspect Ethics As earlier noted some scholars have disputed the ethics of workforce diversity and contend that its identification as an objective contradicts a firm's ethical obligation to hire employees on the basis of merit, qualifications and potential. The aforementioned criteria for candidate selection is nothing short of an ethical obligation which firms owe their stakeholders, job candidates, society and the economy at large (Mujtaba, 2006). As per the stated argument, firms owe their stakeholders, not to mention the economies within which they operate, a duty to perform in accordance with best practices guidelines. It further owes job candidates an ethical duty to acknowledge the more meritorious and qualified among them. When diversity becomes the objective, candidates are not selected according to merit and,

Thursday, October 31, 2019

I am going back to my school and giving a speech to the senior class Essay

I am going back to my school and giving a speech to the senior class. I must either Motivate, Inspire, or Entertain them - Essay Example As the senior class of this school, you are grown and mature. In the outside world, you will not have the luxury of delaying your responsibilities. You can’t be late for job, bills have to be payed on time. It is a decision you have to make today; whether to change for the better and look ahead to the future, or be conformable with the idea that we are a slacker generation. You should be the difference since you are the most senior in the school and the role models to the rest. When the time will come that you will have to leave this place; the world should know that your class will not hold back since you will be the once making the difference out there. It is important that at this point you have come to appreciate the fact there is a solution for every problem, no matter how big or small it may be. For every solution that is provided, someone or something will always be gaining and by doing this, you will be making the school a better place than you found it. All of you may not end up in college, and success does not come at an instance. But what I can assure you is that if you use your time in school wisely, you will succeed in the long run. Don’t waste your time in school, you have a very little time left to make things

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Nation under God Essay Example for Free

Nation under God Essay The argument regarding the use of the word God in the Pledge of Allegiance is not a new one. In fact, this argument stems from the long standing principle of separation between the church and the state which is embodied in the First Amendment of the United States constitution. Under this principle, the government and the church are to be kept separate from each other. The government is prohibited from encouraging or advancing any of the interests of a single religion. This means that the government cannot promote a single religion or impose upon its people which religion to follow (Clark 1965). It is a blanket prohibition that prevents the government from intervening in the religious beliefs of people. The second aspect of this principle recognizes that the government will invariably have to deal with religious institutions one way or the other (Clark 1965). The doctrine on the separation of church and state therefore also regulates the dealings between the church and state such that there should only be a minimal and incidental interference from the government. This is also known as the rule on excessive entanglement between the church and the state. The problem with the use of the word God in the Pledge of Allegiance is considered as a violation of the doctrine on the separation of the church and state because many religious groups claim that the use of the term God favors the Christian religion which prominently uses the term God for the Supreme Being. Other groups on the other hand argue that the word God as used in the Pledge of Allegiance is not an advancement of the Christian religion but rather an acknowledgment of some higher being that is common to all religions. This short discourse will seek to shed more light on the issue of the use of the word God in the Pledge of Allegiance. The first part will cover the historical background of the insertion of the word God in an attempt to understand the original meaning of the word God as used in the Pledge of Allegiance. The next segments will cover the points of view from the perspective of the state as contrasted to the perspective of the church on the issue. Historical Background of the Insertion of the Word God: There has been a lot of controversy surrounding the use of the word God in the Pledge of Allegiance particularly with its mandatory recitation in the public school classrooms. Most of controversy revolves around the use of the phrase â€Å"under God. † It was not until June 14, 1954 however that this highly contested phrase was inserted (Whitsitt 1896). The original tenor of the pledge of allegiance which was created by Francis Bellamy on September 7, 1892 read as follows: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. Historical Changes of the Pledge of Allegiance 1892: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands: one Nation indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all. 1892 to 1923: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and to the Republic for which it stands: one Nation indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all. 1923 to 1954: I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands: one Nation indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all. 1954 to Present: I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands: one Nation under God, indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all. The original tenor of the Pledge of Allegiance did not contain any reference to any deity whatsoever. In response to this, the Knights of Columbus of New York City urged the assemblies to insert a reference to a deity since they felt that it was incomplete without one. The deity to which the Knights of Columbus referred to was the same one that was referred to in Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (Whitsitt 1896). The words â€Å"under God† as used in Lincoln’s address, according to the Knights of Columbus, was the most appropriate one to add to the Pledge of Allegiance. It is important to note however that the phrase â€Å"under God† was never contained in the original text of the Gettysburg Address. By April 22 of the year 1951, the Board of Directors of the Knights of Columbus formally adopted a resolution to amend the recitation of Pledge of Allegiance by the members of the Knights of Columbus at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words under God after the words one nation (Whitsitt 1896). It was not long before the whole organization had adopted the same resolution as the idea spread throughout the other Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution at its annual meeting recommending the that the change in the Pledge of Allegiance be made universal and soon petitions and copies of the resolution were sent to the Office of the President, the Vice President, who was the Presiding Officer of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. While the attempts of the Knights of Columbus were unsuccessful, they were able to convince a majority of the relevance of inserting such a phrase and soon the movement began to gain momentum (Whitsitt 1896). It was not until Senator Homer Ferguson who in his report to the United States Congress on March 10, 1954 that the movement had begun to make significant progress. In this privileged speech, Senator Ferguson said, The introduction of this joint resolution was suggested to me by a sermon given recently by the Rev. George M. Docherty, of Washington, D. C. , who is pastor of the church at which Lincoln worshipped. By this time Congress concurred with the Oakman-Ferguson resolution, and Eisenhower opted to sign the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. The rationale for the approval and adoption of the phrase â€Å"under God† was clarified by President Eisenhower in a letter which he wrote in August of 1954 (Bradley 1996). These words [â€Å"under God†] will remind Americans that despite our great physical strength we must remain humble. They will help us to keep constantly in our minds and hearts the spiritual and moral principles which alone give dignity to man, and upon which our way of life is founded. This was actually taken from the sermon of Docherty to which President Eisenhower had taken a great interest in (Whitsitt 1896). It was eventually published by Harper Bros. in New York in 1958 and President Eisenhower took the opportunity to write to Dr. Docherty with gratitude for the opportunity to once again read the fateful sermon. Finally, on Flag Day, June 14, 1954, Congress passed the legislation that add the phrase under God to the Pledge of Allegiance. At this point, it can be argued that the insertion of the word God into the Pledge of Allegiance was actually motivated by some religious influence, particularly the Christian religion. In order to have a better understanding of the issue at hand however it is important to briefly examine the import of the doctrine of the Separation of the Church and the State. Doctrine of the Separation of Church and State: The phrase, â€Å"separation of Church and State†, is actually from a letter that was written by one of the founding fathers, Thomas Jefferson, to a group that called themselves the Danbury Baptists. In the letter, Thomas Jefferson wrote that, â€Å"I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, thus building a wall of separation between Church and State. † This was of course in reference to the First Amendment of the United States Constitution (Whitsitt 1896). The basic precept of this doctrine is founded on a firm belief that religion and state should be separate. It covers a very wide spectrum, as mentioned in the previous sections of this discussion, ranging from the secularization or elimination of the church to theocracy wherein the state works in tandem with a religion in order to govern over the acts of people (Bradley 1996). The Secularist Perspective: The secularist perspective is that the state should be kept distant from religion and that, in the same vein, the religious institutions should also be free from any governmental interferences. This follows the second aspect of the Doctrine of the Separation of Church and State that dictates that there should be no entanglement between the Church and the State (Bradley 1996). In this perspective, the government is prohibited from citing the authority or influence of a specific religious institution for the justification of its authority (Bradley 1996). While there are some governments that claim religious justifications for their powers such as the Muslim states, the justification for such is based on the emphasis of the relationship for ceremonial and rhetorical purposes only. The acts done by the government are not meant to further the cause of any single religion but are actually for the general welfare and the benefit of the state. The state therefore does not conform to any particular religious doctrine but in fact caters to its own doctrine as mandated by the will of the people and of the Constitution (Clark 1965). Acts such as exemptions from taxation or providing funds for education and charities, though viewed as supporting religion, are in fact welfare based or â€Å"faith based† according to secularists. This reflects the view that temporal authority and spiritual authority should properly operate in complimentary spheres. The spheres where they overlap such as in moral values or property rights are areas where neither should take authority over the other but should instead offer a framework in which society can work these issues out without subjugating a religion to the state or vice versa (Bradley 1996).

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Functional Role of Neurogenesis in Humans

Functional Role of Neurogenesis in Humans Self-renewing stem-like cells in the adult hippocampus have captured the imagination of neuroscientists and clinicians for decades. Unfortunately, there have been relatively few studies investigating the functional role of AHN in humans. Throughout this thesis, I have described a number of studies in which we undertook the challenge of identifying indirect correlates of AHN in humans as well as elucidating the functional role of adult-born granule cells in everyday memory. We accomplished this by assessing various lifestyle- and blood-based factors known to influence neurogenesis from the animal literature and comparing these factors to behavioural performance on tasks which tested the proposed roles for AHN in learning and memory. There has been much speculation regading the functional role of neurogenesis in humans. Computational modellers and theorists have proposed several distinct roles for AHN in cognition based on what is known of their location in the brain, functional connectivity with surrounding regions and physiological poperties. Some have proposed that the constant turnover of newborn cells in the hippocampus would allow memory storage for novel events, while avoiding interference with older memories, a computational process termed pattern separation (Becker et al., 2005; Chambers and Conroy, 2007; Appleby and Wiskott, 2009; Becker et al., 2009; Weisz and Argibay, 2009; Aimone and Gage, 2011). However, events occurring close together in time may be subject to enhanced interference because the same population of cells would be firing in response to each event encountered. This process of increasing interference between events occurring close together in time is referred to as pattern integration (A imone et al., 2006). Indeed, some studies have shown paradoxical improvements in working memory tasks following ablation of neurogenesis (Saxe et al., 2007). However, working memory circuits outside of the hippocampus may be responsible for such improvements. Across short timescales, the majority of behavioural evidence from rodents has actually demonstrated that the role for neurogenesis in cognition, although seemingly widespread, converges on one function in particular. The formation of context-shock associations is impaired in animals lacking neurogenesis (Saxe et al., 2006; Winocur et al., 2006; Imayoshi et al., 2008; Warner-Schmidt et al., 2008; Wojtowicz et al., 2008; Hernandez-Rabaza et al., 2009; Ko et al., 2009; Guo et al., 2011; Nakashiba et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2012b), especially when the shock is relatively weak or training paradigm relatively short (Drew et al., 2010; Pan et al., 2012a, 2013). Animals lacking neurogenesis are also impaired at discriminating between o verlapping odor pairs (Luu et al., 2012) or between nearby, but not far apart spatial locations (Clelland et al., 2009). In contrast, upregualting neurogenesis via aerobic exercise or genetic manipulation has been shown to increase AHN and leads to enhanced behavioural pattern separation or CFC performance (Creer et al., 2010; Sahay et al., 2011; Kohman et al., 2012). While it seems like a wide-variety of tasks require adult-born granule cells, many, if not all of these tasks require overcoming interference. All of these tasks require the animal to form separate representations of similar stimuli, regardless of whether the stimuli are different contexts, objects, spatial locations or odours. This is why I say that AHN is required for a wide-variety, yet specific set of memory tasks. The behavioural requirements of tasks shown to depend on neurogenesis have differed substantially, but the psychological construct shown to rely on AHN has been fairly consistent. Neurogenesis may further help separate similar events occurring over longer time periods (Becker, 2005; Aimone et al., 2006; Becker and Wojtowicz, 2007). A distinct pool of newborn neurons would help to add a degree of contextual novelty to similar events that are separated by a sufficient amount of time. Without new cells being added to the hippocampal network, the same populations of cells would end up reperesenting multiple different memories, leading to catastrophic interference (Wiskott et al., 2006). This account of the role for neurogenesis in learning and memory has generally been reffered to as the memory retention hypothesis throughout this thesis. In contrast, others have proposed that the addition of newborn cells to the hippocampus would result in existing connections being altered in such a way that information is lost (Feng et al., 2001; Deisseroth et al., 2004; Frankland et al., 2013). This account of the role for neurogenesis in learning and memory has generally been referred to as the memory clearance hypothesis throughout this thesis. Behavioural evidence from non-human animal studies has supported the memory retention hypothesis, especially for spatial or context-rich memories. For instance, rodents with ablated neurogenesis display marked deficits in remembering the platform locaton following MWM training across long, but not short timescales (Snyder et al., 2005; Deng et al., 2009; Jessberger et al., 2009; Kitamura et al., 2009; Inokuchi, 2011; Pan et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2013). In contrast, some studies have shown impaired long-term retention of fear memories in younger mice with relatively high rates of neurogenesis compared to their older counterparts (Akers et al., 2012). When older mice had wheel-running- or antidepressant drug-induced enhancement of neurogenesis, they were impaired on tests of remote memory compared to control mice (Akers et al., 2014). Therefore, it would seem that behavioural evidence from rodents has also supported the memory clearance hypothesis. The persistence or clearance of memories as a result of ongoing neural turnover in the DG may depend on the type of memory. There is evidence to suggest that spatial memories are always dependent on the hippocampus (Snyder et al., 2005; Deng et al., 2009; Jessberger et al., 2009). For these memories that are permanently hippocampal-dependent, AHN may help keep overlapping events disctinct from one another, thereby promoting long-term retention of the original memory. On the other hand, fear memories may be supported by regions outside of the hippocampus (Kitamura et al., 2009). Thus, for those memories that can be supported by extrahippocampal structures, AHN may accelerate the process of systems consolidation (Kitamura et al., 2009), shifting the dependence of the memory from the hippocampus to neocortical regions (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire and Alvarez, 1995; Maviel et al., 2004; Squire and Bayley, 2007). While animal studies have provided val uable clues as to the importance of AHN in learning and memory, it has nonetheless become apparent that studying the functional role of neurogenesis directly in humans is the critical next step that must be taken in order to alleviate some of the confusion generated in non-human animal studies. In the set of studies that comprise this thesis, we have demonstrated that change in aerobic capacity following chronic physical activity correlates with change in performance on a putatively neurogenesis-dependent visual pattern separation task. On the other hand, stress and depression scores had opposing effects on behavioural pattern separation performance. Importantly, neither exercise response nor depression scores predicted performance on other trial types within the BPS-O, repeated or novel items, nor the visuo-spatial CANTAB ® PAL task. We have also shown that lower stress and depression scores are associated with improved visual object recognition on repeated items following a two-week delay from the study phase. Further, on two-week delayed retention tests, participants scored near chance at identifying lures as â€Å"similar†, regardless of stress and depression levels. Interestingly, they more often misclassified these items as â€Å"new†, as opposed to â €Å"old†. Our results provide indirect evidence from human participants that AHN is important for pattern separation across shorter delays, while contributing to the persistence of memories for repeated items across extended time intervals. Future studies could explicitly test the memory clearance hypothesis in humans by measuring recognition memory across longer timescales with a pro-neurogenic intervention, such as long-term exercise, in between study and test. Pattern separation and memory retention (or clearance) may be coexisting phenomena. The addition of immature neurons to the hippocampus may at first bias the network towards pattern separation, as opposed to pattern completion, thereby reducing interference between events (Yassa and Reagh, 2013). In turn, the amount of pattern separation may decide what information will be subject to reconsolidation and what information will be cleared (Yassa and Reagh, 2013). Reconsolidation is the process whereby an existing memory becomes susceptible to change. If an event is considered similar, but not the same as, a previously stored event then the original memory may be modified to accommodate the discrepent information. Thus, the constant addition of adult-born neurons to the hippocampus may serve as a means of adding contextual information to existing memories. However, the original memory may be altered so drastically during reconsolidation that it is no longer accessible (essentially cleare d), depending on the amount of interference between the original memory and the novel event. Indeed, a number of computational models predict that the addition of newborn neurons to an existing circuit would hinder retrieval of previously stored memories (Deisseroth et al., 2004; Weisz and Argibay, 2009, 2012). On the other hand, if two events are considered one in the same, then information may be strengthened, although more generalized in nature. As these adult-born neurons that once contributed to pattern integration or pattern separation continue to mature and establish new synaptic connections with the pre-existing circuitry, they may destabilize previously established memories in the hippocampus, leading to the loss of previously stored information (Josselyn and Frankland, 2012; Frankland et al., 2013; Yassa and Reagh, 2013). In turn, the clearance of older memories would make room for new ones and the newborn neurons would become part of the physical storage site for new memo ries (Josselyn and Frankland, 2012). Thus, both processes may be beneficial in their own way. Whether or not memory clearance is a benefit or detriment to memory performance really depends on the relative importance of information is being cleared. Correlates of Neurogenesis in Humans and Animals Neurogenesis is down-regulated in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, so being able to characterize AHN in vivo is critical for better disease prevention and/or treatment. Unfortunately, there is no way to non-invasively quantify newborn cells in the living human hippocampus. Therefore, it has been difficult to improve our understanding of how neurogenesis influences the onset or recovery from certain disorders associated with downregulated neurogenesis, such as depression. In addition, we cannot assess the specific contribution of newborn neurons to learning and memory.